Which of the following is NOT listed as a non-invasive treatment for peripheral vascular disease?

• A. Stop smoking
• B. Increase exercise, particularly walking
• C. Antiplatelet therapy
• D. Beta-blocker therapy

Answer: (D)

Non-invasive management of peripheral vascular disease aims to reduce cardiovascular risk and improve walking ability without procedures. Stopping smoking is crucial because tobacco use accelerates atherosclerosis and worsens symptoms, so cessation markedly supports improvement and long-term outcomes. Increasing exercise, especially walking, strengthens leg muscles, improves walking distance, and enhances overall vascular function through better endothelial response and collateral circulation. Antiplatelet therapy is used to lower the risk of thrombotic events in PAD, helping prevent heart attacks and strokes in addition to improving limb outcomes.

Beta-blocker therapy, while essential for many cardiovascular conditions such as hypertension, arrhythmias, or heart failure, does not directly treat peripheral vascular disease or its claudication symptoms and is not considered a primary non-invasive PAD therapy.